| ESP is most commonly called the "sixth sense." It is | | | | The early experiments faced several criticisms. Two |
| sensory information that an individual receives which | | | | were automatically dismissed: (1) The statistics were |
| comes beyond the ordinary five senses sight, hearing, | | | | unsound which was refuted by the president of the |
| smell, taste, and touch. It can provide the individual with | | | | American Mathematical Association. (2) That ESP is |
| information of the present, past, and future; as it | | | | physical impossibility which begs the question. |
| seems to originate in a second, or alternate reality. | | | | Several appropriate criticisms were accepted by Rhine |
| History: | | | | which he used to improve his experiments. Examples |
| The term "ESP" was used in 1870 by Sir Richard | | | | are: (1) There may have been sensory cues. An |
| Burton. A French researcher, Dr. Paul Joire, in 1892 | | | | example of this is that if a strong light shined on the |
| used the term ESP to describe the ability of person | | | | back of the ESP cards, it might be possible to see the |
| who had been hypnotized or were in a trance state to | | | | symbol through the back. Currently to avoid this |
| externally sense things without using their ordinary | | | | possibility the target card is covered by an oblique |
| senses. | | | | shielding, or kept far from the subject. (2) An |
| However, the phenomena of ESP activity has been | | | | experimenter that knows the target might whisper it or |
| indicated much earlier, some say even in Biblical times. | | | | otherwise give a cue to the subject. Presently no one |
| Although there is no clear evidence as to the certainty | | | | in contact with the subject knows the target. (3) More |
| of the phenomena it has attracted the attention and | | | | hits might be recorded than actually occurred.. |
| enthusiasm of many throughout the centuries. | | | | Currently hits and responses are recorded by machine |
| In the 1920's a Munich ophthalmologist, Dr. Rudolph | | | | or by someone not knowing either. |
| Tischner, used ESP in describing the "externalization of | | | | Three criticism remain: (1) The "file drawer" effect. Only |
| sensibility." Then in the 1930s the American | | | | favorable results are published. Larger experimental |
| parapsychologist J. B. Rhine popularized the term to | | | | data like one in a million make this unlikely. (2) Results |
| include psychic phenomena similar to sensory | | | | are inconsistent and not repeatable. This can be |
| functions. Rhine was among the first parapsychologists | | | | remedied statistically. (3) Charges of fraud. Can be |
| to test ESP phenomena in the laboratory. | | | | refuted by other reputable investigators obtaining |
| The first systematic study of ESP was conducted in | | | | similar results. |
| 1882, when the Society for Psychical Research was | | | | There was a finding which seemed puzzling until better |
| founded n London. The journals of this society | | | | understood. While some label it "missing-ESP" it might |
| Proceedings and Journal were published as well as | | | | be thought of as reverse-ESP too. It is found among |
| other publications in the United States and the | | | | subject who dislike ESP. Even though the subjects |
| Netherlands. Soon other countries were reporting | | | | were consciously trying to achieve good scores, they |
| similar findings. | | | | scored lower than chance. An unconscious factor |
| However, these first studies of ESP were rarely | | | | seemed to come into play here. Experimenters have |
| experimental. The studies consisted of mostly | | | | found they can predict higher scores for some groups |
| spontaneous incidents that were located. Many of the | | | | (for example, those who are interested and relaxed), |
| individuals studied were self-claimed "sensitives" or | | | | and lower scores for other groups (those who show |
| psychics. Rarely were they examined under anything | | | | fear, negativity, or boredom). The factor of |
| resembling laboratory conditions. The researchers | | | | missing-ESP indicates why ESP data is unreliable. |
| conducting the examinations resembled prosecuting | | | | More recently computer games are increasingly being |
| lawyers. The subjects were bombarded with | | | | used to test ESP. The computer is programmed so |
| questions, those standing up the best were judged | | | | that a random series determines the targets, and the |
| creditable. | | | | subjects attempt to outguess the computer. |
| The Rhine experiments: | | | | Another factor that researchers and experimenters |
| The first card-guessing ESP experiments were | | | | must watched for in ESP and all psychical |
| conducted by Rhine at Duke University in 1930. The | | | | experiments is preconceived or previously learned |
| cards consisted of five designs, now called ESP | | | | knowledge. This concerns any knowledge which might |
| symbols, a square, a circle, a plus sign, a five pointed | | | | influence the subject's activity. For example, a person |
| star, and a set of three wavy lines. The symbols were | | | | might say she sensed her son would telephone her on |
| printed singly, in black ink, on cards resembling playing | | | | that certain day at that specific time. If the son had |
| cards. | | | | previously called her in such a fashion, then her |
| In the classic Rhine experiments on ESP, the subject | | | | sensation must be suspect for it might have been |
| tries to guess or "call" the order of the five symbols | | | | based upon knowledge of her son's previous |
| when they are randomly arranged in a deck of 25 | | | | performance. A person might strongly feel that he |
| ESP cards. The likelihood of calling a card correctly by | | | | would receive an email message from a friend on a |
| chance is one in five. Therefore, it is possible to | | | | certain day, and he does; but, can this be considered a |
| calculate how often a particular score is likely to occur | | | | ESP phenomenon considering that this person had not |
| by chance in a given number of calls. It was Rhine'' | | | | head from the other person for sometime and was |
| argument that when his subjects made high scores | | | | expecting the message. The point being made is that |
| that could be expected by chance only once in a | | | | when dealing with psychic phenomena all factors must |
| thousand tries, or once in a million, they displayed | | | | be considered when examining the performance. |
| "extrachance" results, or ESP. | | | | |