| ESP is most commonly called the "sixth | | | | dismissed: (1) The statistics were |
| sense." It is sensory information that | | | | unsound which was refuted by the |
| an individual receives which comes | | | | president of the American Mathematical |
| beyond the ordinary five senses sight, | | | | Association. (2) That ESP is physical |
| hearing, smell, taste, and touch. It can | | | | impossibility which begs the question. |
| provide the individual with information | | | | Several appropriate criticisms were |
| of the present, past, and future; as it | | | | accepted by Rhine which he used to |
| seems to originate in a second, or | | | | improve his experiments. Examples are: |
| alternate reality. | | | | (1) There may have been sensory cues. An |
| History: | | | | example of this is that if a strong |
| The term "ESP" was used in 1870 by Sir | | | | light shined on the back of the ESP |
| Richard Burton. A French researcher, Dr. | | | | cards, it might be possible to see the |
| Paul Joire, in 1892 used the term ESP to | | | | symbol through the back. Currently to |
| describe the ability of person who had | | | | avoid this possibility the target card |
| been hypnotized or were in a trance | | | | is covered by an oblique shielding, or |
| state to externally sense things without | | | | kept far from the subject. (2) An |
| using their ordinary senses. | | | | experimenter that knows the target might |
| However, the phenomena of ESP activity | | | | whisper it or otherwise give a cue to |
| has been indicated much earlier, some | | | | the subject. Presently no one in contact |
| say even in Biblical times. Although | | | | with the subject knows the target. (3) |
| there is no clear evidence as to the | | | | More hits might be recorded than |
| certainty of the phenomena it has | | | | actually occurred.. Currently hits and |
| attracted the attention and enthusiasm | | | | responses are recorded by machine or by |
| of many throughout the centuries. | | | | someone not knowing either. |
| In the 1920's a Munich ophthalmologist, | | | | Three criticism remain: (1) The "file |
| Dr. Rudolph Tischner, used ESP in | | | | drawer" effect. Only favorable results |
| describing the "externalization of | | | | are published. Larger experimental data |
| sensibility." Then in the 1930s the | | | | like one in a million make this |
| American parapsychologist J. B. Rhine | | | | unlikely. (2) Results are inconsistent |
| popularized the term to include psychic | | | | and not repeatable. This can be remedied |
| phenomena similar to sensory functions. | | | | statistically. (3) Charges of fraud. Can |
| Rhine was among the first | | | | be refuted by other reputable |
| parapsychologists to test ESP phenomena | | | | investigators obtaining similar results. |
| in the laboratory. | | | | There was a finding which seemed |
| The first systematic study of ESP was | | | | puzzling until better understood. While |
| conducted in 1882, when the Society for | | | | some label it "missing-ESP" it might be |
| Psychical Research was founded n London. | | | | thought of as reverse-ESP too. It is |
| The journals of this society Proceedings | | | | found among subject who dislike ESP. |
| and Journal were published as well as | | | | Even though the subjects were |
| other publications in the United States | | | | consciously trying to achieve good |
| and the Netherlands. Soon other | | | | scores, they scored lower than chance. |
| countries were reporting similar | | | | An unconscious factor seemed to come |
| findings. | | | | into play here. Experimenters have found |
| However, these first studies of ESP were | | | | they can predict higher scores for some |
| rarely experimental. The studies | | | | groups (for example, those who are |
| consisted of mostly spontaneous | | | | interested and relaxed), and lower |
| incidents that were located. Many of the | | | | scores for other groups (those who show |
| individuals studied were self-claimed | | | | fear, negativity, or boredom). The |
| "sensitives" or psychics. Rarely were | | | | factor of missing-ESP indicates why ESP |
| they examined under anything resembling | | | | data is unreliable. |
| laboratory conditions. The researchers | | | | More recently computer games are |
| conducting the examinations resembled | | | | increasingly being used to test ESP. The |
| prosecuting lawyers. The subjects were | | | | computer is programmed so that a random |
| bombarded with questions, those standing | | | | series determines the targets, and the |
| up the best were judged creditable. | | | | subjects attempt to outguess the |
| The Rhine experiments: | | | | computer. |
| The first card-guessing ESP experiments | | | | Another factor that researchers and |
| were conducted by Rhine at Duke | | | | experimenters must watched for in ESP |
| University in 1930. The cards consisted | | | | and all psychical experiments is |
| of five designs, now called ESP symbols, | | | | preconceived or previously learned |
| a square, a circle, a plus sign, a five | | | | knowledge. This concerns any knowledge |
| pointed star, and a set of three wavy | | | | which might influence the subject's |
| lines. The symbols were printed singly, | | | | activity. For example, a person might |
| in black ink, on cards resembling | | | | say she sensed her son would telephone |
| playing cards. | | | | her on that certain day at that specific |
| In the classic Rhine experiments on ESP, | | | | time. If the son had previously called |
| the subject tries to guess or "call" the | | | | her in such a fashion, then her |
| order of the five symbols when they are | | | | sensation must be suspect for it might |
| randomly arranged in a deck of 25 ESP | | | | have been based upon knowledge of her |
| cards. The likelihood of calling a card | | | | son's previous performance. A person |
| correctly by chance is one in five. | | | | might strongly feel that he would |
| Therefore, it is possible to calculate | | | | receive an email message from a friend |
| how often a particular score is likely | | | | on a certain day, and he does; but, can |
| to occur by chance in a given number of | | | | this be considered a ESP phenomenon |
| calls. It was Rhine'' argument that when | | | | considering that this person had not |
| his subjects made high scores that could | | | | head from the other person for sometime |
| be expected by chance only once in a | | | | and was expecting the message. The point |
| thousand tries, or once in a million, | | | | being made is that when dealing with |
| they displayed "extrachance" results, or | | | | psychic phenomena all factors must be |
| ESP. | | | | considered when examining the |
| The early experiments faced several | | | | performance. |
| criticisms. Two were automatically | | | | |