| ESP is most commonly called the "sixth
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| | criticisms. Two were automatically
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| sense." It is sensory information that an
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| | dismissed: (1) The statistics were
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| individual receives which comes beyond
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| | unsound which was refuted by the
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| the ordinary five senses sight, hearing,
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| | president of the American Mathematical
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| smell, taste, and touch. It can provide
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| | Association. (2) That ESP is physical
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| the individual with information of the
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| | impossibility which begs the question.
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| present, past, and future; as it seems to
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| | Several appropriate criticisms were
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| originate in a second, or alternate
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| | accepted by Rhine which he used to
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| reality.
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| | improve his experiments. Examples are:
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| History:
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| | (1) There may have been sensory cues. An
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| The term "ESP" was used in 1870 by Sir
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| | example of this is that if a strong light
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| Richard Burton. A French researcher, Dr.
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| | shined on the back of the ESP cards, it
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| Paul Joire, in 1892 used the term ESP to
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| | might be possible to see the symbol
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| describe the ability of person who had
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| | through the back. Currently to avoid this
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| been hypnotized or were in a trance state
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| | possibility the target card is covered by
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| to externally sense things without using
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| | an oblique shielding, or kept far from
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| their ordinary senses.
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| | the subject. (2) An experimenter that
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| However, the phenomena of ESP activity
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| | knows the target might whisper it or
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| has been indicated much earlier, some say
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| | otherwise give a cue to the subject.
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| even in Biblical times. Although there is
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| | Presently no one in contact with the
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| no clear evidence as to the certainty of
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| | subject knows the target. (3) More hits
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| the phenomena it has attracted the
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| | might be recorded than actually
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| attention and enthusiasm of many
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| | occurred.. Currently hits and responses
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| throughout the centuries.
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| | are recorded by machine or by someone not
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| In the 1920's a Munich ophthalmologist,
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| | knowing either.
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| Dr. Rudolph Tischner, used ESP in
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| | Three criticism remain: (1) The "file
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| describing the "externalization of
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| | drawer" effect. Only favorable results
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| sensibility." Then in the 1930s the
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| | are published. Larger experimental data
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| American parapsychologist J. B. Rhine
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| | like one in a million make this unlikely.
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| popularized the term to include psychic
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| | (2) Results are inconsistent and not
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| phenomena similar to sensory functions.
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| | repeatable. This can be remedied
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| Rhine was among the first
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| | statistically. (3) Charges of fraud. Can
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| parapsychologists to test ESP phenomena
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| | be refuted by other reputable
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| in the laboratory.
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| | investigators obtaining similar results.
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| The first systematic study of ESP was
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| | There was a finding which seemed puzzling
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| conducted in 1882, when the Society for
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| | until better understood. While some label
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| Psychical Research was founded n London.
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| | it "missing-ESP" it might be thought of
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| The journals of this society Proceedings
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| | as reverse-ESP too. It is found among
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| and Journal were published as well as
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| | subject who dislike ESP. Even though the
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| other publications in the United States
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| | subjects were consciously trying to
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| and the Netherlands. Soon other countries
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| | achieve good scores, they scored lower
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| were reporting similar findings.
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| | than chance. An unconscious factor seemed
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| However, these first studies of ESP were
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| | to come into play here. Experimenters
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| rarely experimental. The studies
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| | have found they can predict higher scores
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| consisted of mostly spontaneous incidents
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| | for some groups (for example, those who
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| that were located. Many of the
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| | are interested and relaxed), and lower
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| individuals studied were self-claimed
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| | scores for other groups (those who show
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| "sensitives" or psychics. Rarely were
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| | fear, negativity, or boredom). The factor
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| they examined under anything resembling
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| | of missing-ESP indicates why ESP data is
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| laboratory conditions. The researchers
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| | unreliable.
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| conducting the examinations resembled
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| | More recently computer games are
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| prosecuting lawyers. The subjects were
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| | increasingly being used to test ESP. The
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| bombarded with questions, those standing
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| | computer is programmed so that a random
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| up the best were judged creditable.
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| | series determines the targets, and the
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| The Rhine experiments:
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| | subjects attempt to outguess the
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| The first card-guessing ESP experiments
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| | computer.
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| were conducted by Rhine at Duke
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| | Another factor that researchers and
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| University in 1930. The cards consisted
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| | experimenters must watched for in ESP and
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| of five designs, now called ESP symbols,
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| | all psychical experiments is preconceived
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| a square, a circle, a plus sign, a five
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| | or previously learned knowledge. This
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| pointed star, and a set of three wavy
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| | concerns any knowledge which might
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| lines. The symbols were printed singly,
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| | influence the subject's activity. For
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| in black ink, on cards resembling playing
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| | example, a person might say she sensed
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| cards.
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| | her son would telephone her on that
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| In the classic Rhine experiments on ESP,
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| | certain day at that specific time. If the
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| the subject tries to guess or "call" the
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| | son had previously called her in such a
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| order of the five symbols when they are
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| | fashion, then her sensation must be
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| randomly arranged in a deck of 25 ESP
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| | suspect for it might have been based upon
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| cards. The likelihood of calling a card
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| | knowledge of her son's previous
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| correctly by chance is one in five.
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| | performance. A person might strongly feel
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| Therefore, it is possible to calculate
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| | that he would receive an email message
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| how often a particular score is likely to
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| | from a friend on a certain day, and he
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| occur by chance in a given number of
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| | does; but, can this be considered a ESP
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| calls. It was Rhine'' argument that when
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| | phenomenon considering that this person
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| his subjects made high scores that could
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| | had not head from the other person for
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| be expected by chance only once in a
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| | sometime and was expecting the message.
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| thousand tries, or once in a million,
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| | The point being made is that when dealing
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| they displayed "extrachance" results, or
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| | with psychic phenomena all factors must
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| ESP.
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| | be considered when examining the
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| The early experiments faced several
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| | performance.
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